Bibliography. I. Commentaries— ^*R. Smend, Leipzig 1880; ^*A. B. Davidson, Cambridge 1892; ^*C. von Orelli, Müntchen 1896; ^*R. Kraetschmar, Göttingen 1900; P. Schmalzl, Wien 1901; J. Knabenbauer, Paris 1907²; ^*H. A. Redpath, London 1907; ^*W. F. Lofthouse, London 1907; ^*J. Breuer, Frankfurt 1921; P. Heinisch, Bonn 1923; ^* J. Herrmann, Leipzig 1924; L. Tondelli, Reggio-Emilia 1930; A. Roelants, Brugge 1930; ^*A. Troelstra, Groeningen 1931; ^*J. Smith, London 1931; ^*A. Noordtzij, Kampen 1933; ^*A. Bertholet, Tübingen 1936; ^*G. A. Cooke (ICC), Edinburgh 1937; E. Osterloh, München 1939; ^*J. G. Matthews, Philadelphia 1939; M. Schumpp, Freiburg 1942; L. Dennefeld, Paris 1947; F. Spadafora, Torino 1948.

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b II. Studies— ^* A. Klostermann, Ezechiel, Studien und Kritiken 50 ( 1877) 391-430; L. Gautier, La mission du prophète Ezéchiel, Lausanne 1891; J. Lajčiak, Ezéchiel, sa personne et son enseignement, Paris 1906 ^* C. Kuhl, Die literarische Einheit des Buches Ezechiel, Tübingen 1917; D. Buzy, Les symboles de l'AT, Paris 1923; ^* G. Hoelscher, Hesekiel der Dichter und das Buch, Giessen 1924; ^* C. C. Torrey, Pseudo-Ezechiel and the Original Prophecy, New Haven 1930; W. Gronkowski, Le messianisme d'Ezéchiel, Paris 1931; ^* J. B. Harford, Is the Book of Ezechiel Pseudo-Epigraphic? ET 43 ( 1931-2) 20-5; V. Herntrich, Ezechielprobleme, Giessen 1932; ^* W. E. Barnes, The Scene of Ezekiel's Mission and his Audience, JTS 35 ( 1934) 163-70; A. van den Born, Ezechiel, Roermond-Massiek 1934; ^* J. B. Harford, Studies in the Book of Ezekiel, London 1935; H. Pope, "Ezechiel and his Visions", Studies 24 ( 1935) 275-88; ^* G. R. Berry, "The Composition of the Book of Ezekiel" JBL 58 ( 1939) 163-75; ^* W. A. Irwin, The Problem of Ezekiel, Chicago 1944; ^* U. Cassuto, L'ordinamento del libro d'Ezechiele, Miscell. Card. Mercati I ( 1946) 40-58; P. Auvray, "Le problème historique du livre d'Ezéchiel", RB 55 ( 1948) 503-19.

  b 

c III. Texts— L. Duerr, Ezechiels Vision der Erscheinung Gottes, Münster 1917; K. Fruhstorfer, "Ezechiels Anfangsvision", TPQ 93 ( 1940) 185-98; J. Coppens, Ez 1:18; 1:25, Muséon 47 ( 1934) 259-63; ^* G. R. Driver , "Sitting upon Scorpions" ( 2:6), JTS 35 ( 1934) 54f. J. Goettsberger, Ez 7:1-16, BZ 27 ( 1934) 195-223; ^* J. A. Bewer, Ez 7:5-14, JBL 45 ( 1926) 223-31; ^* R. Dussaud, L'idole de la jalousie ( 8:3), Syria 21 ( 1940) 359 f.; A. Lemmonyer, "Tammouz-Adonis" ( 8:14), RSPT 4 ( 1930) 271-82; ^* R. Gordis, The Branch to the Nose ( 8:17), JTS 37 ( 1936) 234-8; P. Jotion, Trois noms de personnages bibliques à la lumière des textes d'Ugarit ( 14:14), Bi 19 ( 1938) 283-5; B. Mariani, Danel. Il patriarca sapiente, Roma 1945; ^* O. Eissfeldt, "Hesekiel, Kap. 16 als Geschichtsquelle", JPOS 16 ( 1936) 286-92; E. Mader, Die Kinderopfer der alten Hebräer und der benachbarten Völker, Freiburg 1909; A. Bea, "Kinderopfer für Moloch oder für Jahwe?" Bi 18 ( 1937) 95-107; ^* L. P. Smith, "The Eagle(s) of Ezekiel"c. 17, JBL 58 ( 1939) 43-50; A. Fernandez, "El castigo de los hyos por los peccatos de los padres", EE 2 ( 1923) 419-26; P. Cheminant, Les prophéties d'Ezéchiel contre Tyr, Paris 1912; ^* W. E. Barnes, "Ezekiel's Denunciation of Tyre", JTS 35 ( 1934) 50-4; J. Plessis, Les prophéties d'Ezéchiel contre l'Egypte, Paris 1912; ^* W. E. Barnes, "Two Trees Become One", JTS 39 ( 1938) 91-3; ^* G. R. Berry , "The Date of Ezekiel" 38:1-39:20, JBL 41 ( 1922) 224-32; ^* J. L. Myres, Gog and the Peoples from the North in Ezekiel PEF ( 1932) 213-9; A. Pohl, Das verschlossene Tor ( 44:1-3), Bi 13 ( 1932) 90-2; ^* G. A. Cooke , "Some Considerations on the Text and Teaching of Ez 40-48", ZATW 42 ( 1924) 105-15; ^* T. H. White house , Ezekiel's Temple and Sacrifices, London 1935; ^* O. Procksch, "Fürst und Priester bei Hesekiel", ZATW 17 ( 1940-1) 99-133; ^* K. Elliger, "Die Nordgrenze des Reiches David", PJB 32 ( 1936) 34-73; P. Joüon, "Notes Philologiques sur le texte hébreu d'Ezéchiel", Bi 10 ( 1929) 304-12; ^* G. R. Driver, Linguistic and Textual Problems: Ezekiel, ib. 19 ( 1938) 60-9; 175-87; ^* A. C. Johnson, ^* H. S. Gehman, ^* E. H. Kase, The John Scheide Biblical Papyri, Ezekiel, Princeton 1938.

  c 

  477c 

Historical Background— The period with which the  d  book of Ezechiel is chiefly concerned is that which elapsed between the death of Josias, 609, and the destruction of Jerusalem, 587. The fall of the Assyrian empire had been gradual. Long before the capture of Assur, 614, and Nineveh, 612, and the final collapse of Assyrian resistance in Northern Mesopotamia, 607, outlying regions had regained their independence. Shortly before 650 Psammeticus I had driven the Assyrians out of Egypt and laid siege to Ashdod, capital of an Assyrian province in Southern Palestine. His son and successor, Nechao II, led an Egyptian army through Palestine in 609, to aid the Assyrians, his allies, and still more to regain for Egypt her ancient dominion over Syria and Palestine and the control of the great trade routes of the Near East. Josias meanwhile had taken advantage of Assyrian weakness to institute a great religious revival, destroy the idolatrous shrine at Bethel and extend his boundaries northwards. Hoping to maintain his independence he opposed the Egyptians at Megiddo and lost his life in battle, 609. He was succeeded by his second son Joachaz, preferred by the people to his elder brother Eliakim. Nechao after marching to the Euphrates encamped at Riblah on the Orontes, where he received homage and tribute from the Syrian and Palestinian states. Thither he summoned Joachaz, deposed him after a three months' reign and sent him a prisoner to Egypt where he died. Eliakim received from Nechao a new name Joakim (Yôyāqîm) and was made vassal king of Judah, 608-598. After the collapse of Assyrian  e  resistance, 607, the Egyptian army now on the Mesopotamian border had to be dealt with by the Babylonians who also claimed dominion over Syria and Palestine. The crown-prince Nabuchodonosor (Nabukudurri-usur 'Nabu, protect the boundary') crossed the Euphrates, defeated Nechao at Carchemish, 606, and pursued the Egyptians through Syria and Palestine to their own borders. Here however he was recalled to Babylon by the death of his father Nabopolassar in May or June 605. On his march through Palestine he had besieged Jerusalem and begun the exile by deporting Daniel and his companions to Babylon in December 606. The fast, instituted to commemorate the anniversary of the calamity, determines the month, in the third year of Joakim (Spring 606-Spring 605) by the Babylonian postdating system, Dan 1:1, but in the fourth (Autumn 606-Autumn 605) by the Hebrew antedating system, Jer 46:2. Joakim paid tribute to the Babylonians for three years but

  d 

  e